SLAVERY
World and American History
Slavery.
Just mention the word and most black people will have some opinion,
mostly negative, about Colonial America, White Americans, and black
treatment by Whites.
We are not about to defend the practice of slavery in the United States of America
What we are going to do is give historical background
Facts that you may not be aware of, and other important information.
It's also important to understand that
White people suffered from slavery
As a matter of fact
Four months before the first blacks landed on American shores Great Britain shipped the first 100 slaves to Jamestown -- they were White children
with many more to follow
When the first 20 Africans arrived they were unintended and they were bartered for food and provisions
This did not start slavery in America
Slavery had already been established with Whites!
No flood of Africans followed these first blacks
There was no market for them in Virginia
Six years later there were still only
Twenty-three Africans in the colony
Does this sound like a major slave trade?
Even decades later there were only a few hundred Africans.
Of
course, this would change. But for decades, the poor of England, the
riff-raff of England, the prisoners of England, Scotland and Ireland
These were the slaves of America
See the extraordinary book "White Cargo: The Forgotten History of Britain's White Slaves in America"
by Don Jordan and Michael Walsh for more information on how the rich
elite enslaved their own countrymen for profit and personal gain
Color didn't matter -- Just money
The Irish were considered
"Niggers turned inside out"
"Negro
slavery was efficiently established in colonial America because Black
slaves were governed, organized and controlled by the structures and
organization that were first used to enslave and control Whites. Black
slaves were 'late comers fitted into a system already developed.'"
(Michael Hoffman, They Were White and They Were Slaves and Ulrich B. Phillips, Life and Labor in the Old South, pp. 25, 26)
Historian
Oscar Handlin writes that in colonial America, White "servants (SLAVES)
could be bartered for profit, sold to the highest bidder for the unpaid
debts of their masters, and otherwise transferred like movable goods or
chattels...The condition of the first Negroes in the continental
English colonies must be viewed within the perspective of these
conceptions and realities of White servitude."
(Michael A Hoffman, They Were White and They Were Slaves, p. 39)
Why don't you know about White slavery?
Why haven't you been taught this aspect of your history and Heritage in school?
Ask a different question: who benefits from racial unrest?
Notice this advertisement includes negro, Indian and a "fresh complexion servant" who has run away
All slaves
The
politically correct media and educational system would have you believe
that the evil White man enslaved only the negro and only Whites have
responsibility for slavery.
This same establishment would also have you believe that
Only negroes were the victims of slavery and only Whites owned slaves
The truth is that by around 1626
White slaves outnumbered blacks in the Chesapeake by more than
Twenty to one
And even by 1700 the ration was still three to one
6000 White slaves
2000 black slaves
The gap was closing fast, but Whites were still enslaved in greater numbers then blacks.
The Forgotten Slaves: Whites in Servitude in Early America and Industrial Britain
White
children enslaved in a mine in 19th century England. The two on the
left are virtually naked. Children of both sexes worked in this manner.
by Michael A. Hoffman II ©Copyright 1999. All Rights Reserved
Two
years ago, Prime Minister Paul Keating of Australia refused to show
"proper respect" to Britain's Queen Elizabeth II during her state visit.
In response, Terry Dicks, a Conservative member of the British
Parliament said, "It's a country of ex-convicts, so we should not be
surprised by the rudeness of their prime minister."
A
slur such as this would be considered unthinkable if it were uttered
against any other class or race of people except the descendants of
White slavery. Dicks' remark is not only offensive, it is ignorant and
false. Most of Australia's "convicts" were shipped into servitude for
such "crimes" as stealing seven yards of lace, cutting trees on an
aristocrat's estate or poaching sheep to feed a starving family.
The
arrogant disregard for the holocaust visited upon the poor and working
class Whites of Britain by the aristocracy continues in our time because
the history of that epoch has been almost completely extirpated from
our collective memory.
When White servitude is acknowledged as having existed in America, it is almost always termed as temporary "indentured servitude" or part of the convict trade,
which, after the Revolution of 1776, centered on Australia instead of
America. The "convicts" transported to America under the 1723 Waltham
Act, perhaps numbered 100,000.
The
indentured servants who served a tidy little period of 4 to 7 years
polishing the master's silver and china and then taking their place in
colonial high society, were a minuscule fraction of the great unsung
hundreds of thousands of White slaves who were worked to death in this
country from the early l7th century onward.
Up
to one-half of all the arrivals in the American colonies were Whites
slaves and they were America's first slaves. These Whites were slaves
for life, long before Blacks ever were. This slavery was even
hereditary. White children born to White slaves were enslaved too.
Whites
were auctioned on the block with children sold and separated from their
parents and wives sold and separated from their husbands. Free Black
property owners strutted the streets of northern and southern American
cities while White slaves were worked to death in the sugar mills of
Barbados and Jamaica and the plantations of Virginia.
The
Establishment has created the misnomer of "indentured servitude" to
explain away and minimize the fact of White slavery. But bound Whites in early America called themselves slaves. Nine-tenths of the White slavery in America was conducted without indentures of any kind
but according to the so-called "custom of the country," as it was
known, which was lifetime slavery administered by the White slave
merchants themselves.
In George
Sandys laws for Virginia, Whites were enslaved "forever." The service
of Whites bound to Berkeley's Hundred was deemed "perpetual." These
accounts have been policed out of the much touted "standard reference
works" such as Abbott Emerson Smith's laughable whitewash, Colonists in
Bondage.
I challenge any
researcher to study 17th century colonial America, sifting the
documents, the jargon and the statutes on both sides of the Atlantic and
one will discover that White slavery was a far more extensive operation than Black enslavement.
It is when we come to the 18th century that one begins to encounter
more "servitude" on the basis of a contract of indenture. But even in
that period there was kidnapping of Anglo-Saxons into slavery as well as convict slavery.
In
1855, Frederic Law Olmsted, the landscape architect who designed New
York's Central Park, was in Alabama on a pleasure trip and saw bales of
cotton being thrown from a considerable height into a cargo ship's hold.
The men tossing the bales somewhat recklessly into the hold were
Negroes, the men in the hold were Irish.
Olmsted inquired about this to a shipworker. "Oh," said the worker, "the
niggers are worth too much to be risked here; if the Paddies are
knocked overboard or get their backs broke, nobody loses anything."
Before British slavers traveled to Africa's western coast to buy Black slaves from African chieftains, they sold their own White working class kindred
("the surplus poor" as they were known) from the streets and towns of
England, into slavery. Tens of thousands of these White slaves were
kidnapped children. In fact the very origin of the word kidnapped is kid-nabbed, the stealing of White children for enslavement.
According
to the English Dictionary of the Underworld, under the heading
kidnapper is the following definition: "A stealer of human beings, esp.
of children; originally for exportation to the plantations of North
America."
The center of the trade in child-slaves was in the port cities of Britain and Scotland:
"Press
gangs in the hire of local merchants roamed the streets, seizing 'by
force such boys as seemed proper subjects for the slave trade.' Children
were driven in flocks through the town and confined for shipment in
barns...So flagrant was the practice that people in the countryside
about Aberdeen avoided bringing children into the city for fear they
might be stolen; and so widespread was the collusion of merchants,
shippers, suppliers and even magistrates that the man who exposed it was
forced to recant and run out of town." (Van der Zee, Bound Over, p.
210).
White slaves transported to the colonies suffered a staggering loss of life in the 17th and 18th century. During the voyage to America it was customary to keep the White slaves below deck for the entire nine to twelve week journey.
A White slave would be confined to a hole not more than sixteen feet
long, chained with 50 other men to a board, with padlocked collars
around their necks. The weeks of confinement below deck in the ship's
stifling hold often resulted in outbreaks of contagious disease which would sweep through the "cargo" of White "freight" chained in the bowels of the ship.
Ships carrying White slaves to America often lost half their slaves to death. According to historian Sharon V. Salinger, "Scattered data reveal that the mortality for [White] servants at certain times equaled that for [Black] slaves in the 'middle passage,' and during other periods actually exceeded the death rate for [Black] slaves." Salinger reports a death
rate of ten to twenty percent over the entire 18th century for Black
slaves on board ships enroute to America compared with a death rate of
25% for White slaves enroute to America.
Foster
R. Dulles writing in Labor in America: A History, states that whether
convicts, children 'spirited' from the countryside or political
prisoners, White slaves "experienced
discomforts and sufferings on their voyage across the Atlantic that
paralleled the cruel hardships undergone by negro slaves on the
notorious Middle Passage."
Dulles
says the Whites were "indiscriminately herded aboard the 'white
guineamen,' often as many as 300 passengers on little vessels of not
more than 200 tons burden--overcrowded, unsanitary...The mortality
rate was sometimes as high as 50% and young children seldom survived the
horrors of a voyage which might last anywhere from seven to twelve
weeks."
Independent
investigator A.B. Ellis in the Argosy writes concerning the transport of
White slaves, "The human cargo, many of whom were still tormented by
unhealed wounds, could not all lie down at once without lying on each
other. They were never suffered to go on deck. The hatchway was
constantly watched by sentinels armed with hangers and blunder busses.
In the dungeons below all was darkness, stench, lamentation, disease and
death."
Marcus Jernegan describes the greed of the shipmasters which led to horrendous loss of life for White slaves transported to America:
"The
voyage over often repeated the horrors of the famous 'middle passage'
of slavery fame. An average cargo was three hundred, but the shipmaster,
for greater profit, would sometimes crowd as many as six hundred into a
small vessel...The mortality under such circumstances was tremendous,
sometimes more than half...Mittelberger (an eyewitness) says he saw thirty-two children thrown into the ocean during one voyage."
"The
mercantile firms, as importers of (White) servants, were not too
careful about their treatment, as the more important purpose of the
transaction was to get ships over to South Carolina which could carry
local produce back to Europe. Consequently the Irish--as well as others--suffered greatly...
"It was almost as if the British merchants had redirected their vessels from the African coast to the Irish coast, with the white servants coming over in much the same fashion as the African slaves." (Warren B. Smith, White Servitude in Colonial South Carolina).
A
study of the middle passage of White slaves was included in a
Parliamentary Petition of 1659. It reported that White slaves were
locked below deck for two weeks while the slaveship was still in port.
Once under way, they were "all the way locked up under decks...amongst
horses." They were chained from their legs to their necks.
Those
academics who insist that slavery is an exclusively Black racial
condition forget or deliberately omit the fact that the word slave
originally was a reference to Whites of East European origin - "Slavs."
Moreover, in the 18th century in Britain and America, the Industrial Revolution spawned the factory system whose first laborers were miserably oppressed White children as young as six years of age.
They were locked in the factories for sixteen hours a day and mangled
by the primitive machinery. Hands and arms were regularly ripped to
pieces. Little girls often had their hair caught in the machinery and
were scalped from their foreheads to the back of their necks.
White
Children wounded and crippled in the factories were turned out without
compensation of any kind and left to die of their injuries. Children
late to work or who fell asleep were beaten with iron bars. Lest we
imagine these horrors were limited to only the early years of the
Industrial Revolution, eight and ten year old White children throughout America were hard at work in miserable factories and mines as late as 1920.
Because
of the rank prostitution, stupidity and cowardice of America's teachers
and educational system, White youth are taught that Black slaves,
Mexican peons and Chinese coolies built this country while the vast
majority of the Whites lorded it over them with a lash in one hand and a
mint julep in the other.
The
documentary record tells a very different story, however. When White
Congressman David Wilmot authored the Wilmot Proviso to keep Black
slaves out of the American West he did so, he said, to preserve that
vast expanse of territory for "the sons of toil, my own race and color."
This
is precisely what most White people in America were, "sons of toil,"
performing backbreaking labor such as few of us today can envision. They
had no paternalistic welfare system; no Freedman's Bureau to coo sweet
platitudes to them; no army of bleeding hearts to worry over their
hardships. These Whites were the expendable frontline soldiers in the
expansion of the American frontier. They won the country, felled the
trees, cleared and planted the land.
The
wealthy, educated White elite in America are the sick heirs of what
Charles Dickens in Bleak House termed "telescopic philanthropy"--the
concern for the condition of distant peoples while the plight of kindred
in one's own backyard are ignored.
Today
much of what we see on "Turner Television" and Pat Robertson's misnamed
"Family Channel," are TV films depicting Blacks in chains, Blacks being
whipped, Blacks oppressed. Nowhere can we find a cinematic chronicle of the Whites who were beaten and killed in White slavery. Four-fifths of the White slaves sent to Britain's sugar colonies in the West Indies did not survive their first year.
Soldiers
in the American Revolution and sailors impressed into the American navy
received upwards of two hundred whiplashes for minor infractions. But
no TV show lifts the shirt of these White yeoman to reveal the scars on
their backs.
The Establishment would rather weep over the poor persecuted Negroes, but leave the White working class "rednecks" and "crackers" (both of these terms of derision were first applied to White slaves), to live next door to the Blacks.
Little has changed since the early 1800s when the men of property and station of the English Parliament outlawed
Black slavery throughout the Empire. While this Parliament was in
session to enact this law, ragged five year old White orphan boys,
beaten, starved and whipped, were being forced up the chimneys of the
English parliament, to clean them. Sometimes the chimney masonry
collapsed on these boys. Other times they suffocated to death inside
their narrow smoke channels.
Long
after Blacks were free throughout the British Empire, the British House
of Lords refused to abolish chimney-sweeping by White children under
the age of ten. The Lords contended that to do so would interfere
with "property rights." The lives of the White children were not worth a
farthing and were considered no subject for humanitarian concern.
The
chronicle of White slavery in America comprises the dustiest shelf in
the darkest corner of suppressed American history. Should the truth
about that epoch ever emerge into the public consciousness of Americans,
the whole basis for the swindle of "Affirmative action," "minority
set-asides" and proposed "Reparations to African-Americans" will be
swept away. The fact is, the White working people of this country owe no one. They are themselves the descendants, as Congressman Wilmot so aptly said, of "the sons of toil."
There
will only be racial peace when knowledge of radical historical truths
are widespread and both sides negotiate from positions of strength and
not from fantasies of White working class guilt and the uniqueness of
Black suffering.
Let it be said, in many cases Blacks in slavery had it better than poor Whites in the antebellum South.
This is why there was such strong resistance to the Confederacy in the
poverty-stricken areas of the mountain south, such as Winston County in
Alabama and the Beech mountains of North Carolina. Those
poor Whites could not imagine why any White laborer would want to die
for the slave-owning plutocracy that more often than not, gave better
care and attention to their Black servants than they did to the free
white labor they scorned as "trash."
To this day, the White ruling class denigrates the White poor and patronizes Blacks.
If
this seems admirable from the pathological viewpoint of Marxism or
cosmopolitan liberalism, the Black and Third World "beneficiaries" of
White ruling class "esteem" ought to consider what sort of "friends"
they actually have.
The
Bible declares that the man who does not take care of his own family is
"worse than an infidel." This also applies to one's racial kindred. The
man who neglects his own children to care for yours has true love for
neither.
White, self-hating
liberals and greed-head conservatives who claim to care for the "civil
rights" of Black and Third World people, discard the working class of
their own people on the garbage heap of history. When they are finished
with their own they shall surely turn on others.
Those who care for their own kind first are not practicing "hate" but kindness, which is the very root of the word.
Michael
A. Hoffman II is the author of "They Were White and They Were Slaves:
The Untold History of the Enslavement of Whites in Early America and
Industrial Britain"
to order a copy of this book click on the link below
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Click here to learn more about 
With this history in mind, let's look at the history of slavery
Especially black slavery in the United States
History of Slavery
Slavery is the systematic exploitation of labor. Slavery
is a legal or informal institution under which a person (called "a
slave") is compelled to work for another (sometimes called "the master"
or "slave owner"). Evidence of slavery predates written records,
and has existed to varying extents, forms and periods in almost all
cultures and countries. Slaves are held against their will from the
time of their capture, purchase, or birth, and are deprived of the right
to leave, to refuse to work, or to receive compensation in return for
their labor. Today, slavery is formally outlawed in nearly all
countries, but the continues to exist in various forms around the
world. Prior to the 10th century,
words other than "slave" were used for all kinds of unfree laborers.
For instance, the old Latin word servus was used for both serfs and chattel slaves.
In Modern English, the word slave originates from "sclave" around 1290. It's based on the Byzantine Greek "sklabos" meaning Slavic people".
The term originally referred to various peoples from Eastern and
Central Europe since many Slavic and other people from these areas were
captured and sold as slaves by the Vikings and later the Holy Roman
Emperor Otto I.
The enslavement of so many White Christian people is where the word slave originated.
The Slave Market
is a painting by 19th century artist Gustave Boulanger. It depicts a
Roman slave auction and appears to be intended to show the horrific
aspects of human beings being for sale. It shows the marketing of seven
young people, ranging in age from children to young adults, as slaves.
Both male slaves, as well as two of the female slaves, bear a
similarity in appearance, perhaps suggesting that they are members of a
family forced into slavery by economic conditions. All are wearing tags
to indicate their availability as slaves. The auctioneer adds to the
sense of horror with his very casual attitude.
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13th Century slave market in Yemen *
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Slavery
traces back to the earliest records, such as the Code of Hammurabi
around 1760 BC, which refers to it as an established institution.
Slavery in ancient cultures was known to occur in civilizations as old
as Sumer and is found in every civilization including ancient Egypt,
Assyria, Ancient Greece, Ancient Persia, Rome and the Islamic
Caliphate. Slavery is mentioned in the Bible.As the Roman Republic expanded outward, entire populations were enslaved, thus creating an ample supply. The Romans enslaved Greeks, Berbers, Germans, Britons, Thracians, Gauls (Celts), Jews, Arabs
and many more not only for labor but for their amusement (e.g.
gladiators and sex slaves). This oppression by an elite minority
eventually led to slave revolts, the most famous led by Spartacus. Most of these populations were White, the majority Christian.
The
early medieval slave trade was mainly to the East: the Byzantine Empire
and the Muslim World were the destinations, pagan Central and Eastern
Europe, along with the Caucasus and Tartary, were important sources.
Viking, Arab, Greek and Jewish merchants (known as Radhanites) were all
involved in the slave trade during the Early Middle Ages.
During
the constant warfare between Muslims and Christians in Medieval Spain
and Portugal, Muslim raiding parties took Christian slaves by the
thousands, mainly women and children.
Over 10% of England's population entered in the Domesday Book in 1086 were slaves. This would be White, English slaves.
Copy of a page from the Domesday Book for Warwickshire
The great survey of England completed in 1086 for William I
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The
Byzantine-Ottoman wars and the Ottoman wars in Europe brought large
numbers of Christian slaves into the Islamic world. After one battle
12,000 Christian slaves were freed from the Ottoman Turks. Christians
also sold Muslim slaves captured in war.
Slavery was prominent in Africa long before the beginnings of the transatlantic slave trade.
The maritime town of Lagos, Portugal was created for the sale of
imported African slaves 1444. In 1441, the first slaves were brought to
Portugal from northern Mauritania. By the year 1552 black African
slaves made up 10 percent of the population of Lisbon.
The first Europeans to use African slaves in the New World were the Spaniards.
They used them on islands such as Cuba and Hispaniola, where the native
populations had been decimated by smallpox. The first African slaves
arrived in 1501.
According to
Sir Henry Bartle Frere there were an estimated 8 million or 9 million
slaves in India in 1841. In Malabar about 15% of the population were
slaves. Slavery was abolished in both Hindu and Muslim India by the
Indian Slavery Act V. of 1843. The Imperial government formally
abolished slavery in China in 1906, and the law became effective in
1910. Indigenous slaves existed in Korea. Slavery was officially
abolished with the Gabo Reform of 1894 but remained extant in reality
until 1930. During the Joseon Dynasty (1392–1910) about 30% to 50% of
the Korean population were slaves.
Historians
say the Arab slave trade lasted more than millennium. Some historians
estimate that between 11 and 18 million black African slaves crossed the
Red Sea, Indian Ocean, and Sahara Desert from 650 AD to 1900 AD, or
more than the 9.4 to 12 million Africans brought to the Americas.
According to Robert Davis between 1 million and 1.25 million Europeans
were captured by Barbara pirates and sold as slaves in North Africa and
Ottoman Empire between the 16th and 19th centuries.
On
December 10, 1948, the General Assembly of the United Nations adopted
the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Article 4 states:
No one shall be held in slavery or servitude; slavery and the slave trade shall be prohibited in all their forms.
That hasn't stopped slavery
Although
outlawed in nearly all countries, forms of slavery still exist in many
parts of the world. According to Kevin Bales of Free the Slaves (FTS),
an advocacy group linked with Anti-Slavery International, there were 27
million people (although some put the number as high as 200 million) who
worked in virtual slavery in 2007, spread all over the world.
According to FTS, these slaves represent the largest number of people
that has ever been in slavery at any point in world history and the
smallest percentage of the total human population that has ever been
enslaved at once.FTS claims that
present-day slaves have been sold for $40 in Mali for young adult male
workers and as much as $1,000 in Thailand for HIV-free females able to
work in brothels. The lower limit represents the lowest price that
there has ever been for a slave: the price of a comparable male slave in
1850 in the United States would have been about $25,800 in present-day
terms (US$1,000 in 1850). That difference, even allowing for differences
in purchasing power, is significant. As a result of the lower price,
the economic advantages of present-day slavery are clear.
Today
(2008) Enslavement is also taking place in parts of Africa, the Middle
East, and South Asia. The Middle East Quarterly reports that slavery is
still endemic in Sudan. The Chinese government freed 570 people from
brick manufacturers in June and July 2007. Among those rescued were 69
children. In response, the Chinese government assembled a force of
35,000 police to check northern Chinese brick kilns for slaves, sent
dozens of kiln supervisors to prison, punished 95 officials in Shanxi
province for dereliction of duty, and sentenced one kiln foreman to
death for killing an enslaved worker.
In
Mauritania (northwest Africa) alone, it is estimated that up to 600,000
men, women and children, or 20% of the population, are enslaved, many
of them used as bonded labor. Slavery in Mauritania was criminalized in
August 2007. It should be interesting to note that it's the lighter
skinned Muslim majority ("white Moors" or bidhan) that's enslaving the
darker skinned descendants of black Africans abducted into slavery who
now live in Mauritania as "black Moors" or haratin in Mauritania.
Three
Abyssinian slaves in chains. Anti-Slavery Society estimated there were
2 million slaves in Ethiopia in the early 1930s, out of an estimated
population of between 8 and 16 million.
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Francis Bok
former Sudanese slave
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In
Niger slavery is also a current phenomenon. A Nigerian study has found
that more than 800,000 people are enslaved, almost 8% of the
population. Pygmies, the people of Central Africa's rain forest, live
in servitude to the Bantus. Some tribal sheiks in Iraq still keep
blacks, called Abd, which means servant or slave in Arabic, as
slaves. Child slavery has commonly been used in the production of cash
crops and mining. According to the U.S. Department of State, more than
109,000 children were working on cocoa farms alone in the Ivory Coast in
2002. In the Sudan more than 200,000 people, mostly Dinka, have been
enslaved in recent years.
In Myanmar an estimated 800,000 people are subject to forced labor.
Sexual Slavery
In Africa
with institutional slavery "abolished" in the nineteenth and twentieth
centuries in most countries, other forms of slavery have become more
widespread. Reports of women sex slaves in Sudan, Liberia, Sierra
Leone, northern Uganda, Congo, Niger and Mauritania are common. In
Ghana, Togo and Benin a form of religious prostitution known as trokosi
(ritual servitude) forcibly keeps thousands of girls and women in
traditional shrines as "wives of the gods", where priests perform the
sexual function in place of the gods.
In India
as many as 200,000 Nepali girls, many under the age of 14, have been
sold into sexual slavery. Nepalese women and girls are favored in India
because of their fair skin and they look young.
In Pakistan
girls as young as nine years old have been sold by their families to
brothels as sex slaves in big cities, often due to poverty or debt, but
occasionally to pay for gambling, drinking or drug debt. Girls from
Afghanistan have been tricked into coming to Pakistan and then used as
sex slaves.
Asia
is rampant with crimes against women in the sex slave business. Tens
of thousands of women and girls, some very young, are forced into the
sex business in countries such as Vietnam, Cambodia, Burma, China, and
others. Thailand is a big offender in this disgusting business. Japan
recently apologized for forcing women to be used as sex slaves during
World War II.
Israel
has smuggled between 3,000 and 5,000 women over the past four years in
a burgeoning, illegal sex industry, according to a parliamentary
committee report issued in 2005. The women are smuggled across the
Egyptian border into Israel and, according to Zehava Galon who heads the
Committee Against Trade in Women, these women are "raped, beaten, and
then sold in public auctions." Most of the women are from the former Soviet Union, she said. In other words, White.
The United States has rescued Asian and Mexican women from being held captive as used as sex slaves.
These are just some of the known cases of modern day slavery
Human trafficking
Trafficking in human beings (also called human trafficking)
is sometimes referred to as a form of slavery. The opponents of the
practice point out that victims are tricked, lured by false promises, or
forced into a "debt slavery" situation by the use against them of
coercion, deception, fraud, intimidation, isolation, threat and use of
physical force, debt bondage or even force-feeding with drugs of abuse
to control their victims.
While
the majority of victims are women, and sometimes children, who are
forced into prostitution (in which case the practice is called sex trafficking), victims also include men, women and children who are forced into manual labor.
Due
to the illegal nature of human trafficking, its exact extent is
unknown. A US Government report published in 2005, estimates that
600,000-800,000 people worldwide are trafficked across borders each year
(10,000 to 20,000 into the United States). This figure does not include
those who are trafficked internally. This number is probably very low.
As you can see, slavery has its victims in all races, male and female, young and old
Stalin and Forced Labor
Even though Stalin's gulags weren't technically slavery we feel compelled to mention the Communist forced prison labor camps.
There
were at least 476 separate camps, some of them comprising hundreds,
even thousands of camp units. The most infamous complexes were those at
arctic or subarctic regions. Started in 1918 after the Communist takeover of Russia, more than 14 million people passed through the Gulag
from 1929 to 1953, with a further 6 to 7 million being deported and
exiled to remote areas of the Soviet Union. According to de-classified
archive data released by the successor agency to the KGB after
Perestroika, a total of 1,053,829 people died in the GULAG from 1934 to
1953, not counting those who died in labor colonies. The total
population of the camps varied from 510,307 (in 1934) to 1,727,970 (in
1953). Notice they haven't released earlier numbers.
Some estimates are that at least 20,000,000 -- that's twenty million people died in the Soviet Gulags
A Large majority of them White Christians
Most
Gulag inmates were not political prisoners, although the political
prisoner population was always significant. People could be imprisoned
in a Gulag camp for crimes such as unexcused absences from work, petty
theft, or anti-government jokes. About half of the political prisoners
were sent to Gulag prison camps without trial. Per official data, there
were more than 2.6 million imprisonment sentences in cases investigated
by the secret police, 1921-1953. While the Gulag was radically reduced
in size following Stalin's death in 1953, forced labor camps and
political prisoners continued to exist in the Soviet Union right up to
the Gorbachev era. However, the camps in Siberia still house a labor force of about a million prisoners.
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
History of Slavery in America
First Legal Slave Owned by a Negro!
In
1619 the Dutch ship, the White Lion, damaged by battle with a Spanish
ship and by a great storm, came ashore at Old Point Comfort with 20
captured enslaved Africans that they had taken from the Spanish. The
Dutch were in need of repairs and supplies and the colonists were in
need of able-bodied workers. So the Africans were traded for food and
services. One could argue that being traded to the Jamestown colonists freed these 20 Africans. If they had continued with the Dutch they most certainly would have spent their lives in slavery. Instead, they became indentured servants and earned their freedom after a period of time. These 20 became "servants" and went to work in tobacco fields alongside the White servants from England. Conditions were hard for both groups but their servitude eventually would end.
In addition to Africans, Irish, Scottish, English and Germans were brought over in substantial numbers as slaves. Over half of all white immigrants to the English colonies consisted of these slaves, which historians want to call "indentured servants," during the 17th and 18th centuries. Most of the Whites were slaves. Only a handful were actually true indentured servants.
At first, the Africans in Virginia were treated just the same as the
European indentured servants. The Africans were freed after a stated
period and given the use of land and supplies by their former owners.
One African, Anthony Johnson, arrived in Jamestown in 1621, fulfilled his obligation of servitude, married and eventually became a landowner.
The
transformation from indentured servitude to racial slavery for the
Africans happened gradually since there were no laws regarding slavery
early in Virginia's history. Yet in 1640 at least one black servant had
been sentence to slavery. John Punch, an indentured servant, ran
away. His sentence? A lifetime of slavery. The two White indentured
servants who ran away with him are given extended terms of servitude.
The first legally-recognized slave in the area that was to become the United States was John Casor, a black man. A court in Northampton County, Virginia declared him property for life. Casor was "owned" by the Black colonist Anthony Johnson. Yes, the first legally owned slave in the American colonies was owned by a black man! What
irony. But remember, Anthony Johnson came from Africa where slavery
was common and expected. He only wanted to continue the practice of his
homeland!
It's
our opinion that, even though Mr. Johnson was the first to apply for a
legal slave, it's obvious that the rest of society was quick to follow
his actions. It's also our opinion that if white landowners didn't want
the cheap labor that slavery provided there never would have been a
market for this horrific practice. That's obvious. What isn't so
obvious is that this is the start of the downfall of our nation. Just
like ancient Egypt, Greece, and Rome, when cheap labor becomes more
important then doing the work yourself and maintaining your racial
purity, your country will fall. The Africans suffered from White
laziness. And ultimately, the White race, and America, has suffered.
In
1653 Virginia, one of Anthony Johnson’s involuntary African laborers, a
man named John Casor, claimed his freedom because his term of indenture
had allegedly expired seven years before. He fled his master’s
plantation and took refuge with a nearby farmer, Captain Gouldsmith. Johnson insisted that his runaway laborer was not indentured, but was a lifelong slave and demanded the African’s return.
Not wanting to become embroiled in a legal fight with a powerful
plantation owner, Gouldsmith turned the worker over to another wealthy
planter, Robert Parker. Parker took the worker’s side in the dispute,
kept him on his own plantation’s workforce, and argued on his behalf in
court. The case dragged on for two years, with Johnson at one point agreeing to manumit Casor, but then reneging on the settlement.
On March 8, 1655, the Northampton County Court ruled that Casor had
been a slave all along, ordered that the worker be returned immediately
to Anthony Johnson, and ordered Robert Parker to pay damages for
sheltering the runaway for two years, as well as court costs. A few
years later, Parker abandoned his career as a Virginia planter and
returned to England. Twenty years later, Casor was still owned by Mary
Johnson—Anthony Johnson’s widow. What is important about this tale is
that Anthony Johnson was also African. His plantation, from whence Casor
fled, was named “Angola,” and it exploited European forced laborers as well as Africans.
Read the rest of this essay for a fascinating insight on early America and the question of color
The color-line was not what we have been taught to believe
|
The
Virginia Slave Codes of 1705 made clear the status of slaves. During
the British colonial period, every colony had slavery. Those in the
north were primarily house servants and those in the South worked on
farms and plantations. Subsistence farmers seldom owned slaves.
Interestingly,
in 1670 the Lords Commissioners of Foreign Plantations enquired of the
Governor of Virginia on the status of the colony. Sir William Berkeley
answered in 1671.
15. What number of planters, servants and slaves; and how many parishes are there in your plantation?
Answer.
We suppose, and I am very sure we do not much miscount, that there is
in Virginia above forty thousand persons, men, women, and children, and
of which there are two thousand black slaves, six thousand Christian
servants (slaves), for a short time, the rest are born in the
country or have come in to settle and seat, in bettering their condition
in a growing country.
16. What
number of English, Scots, or Irish have for these seven yeares last
past come yearly to plant and inhabite within your government; as also
what blacks or slaves have been brought in within the said time?
Answer.
Yearly, we suppose there comes in, of servants, about fifteen hundred,
of which, most are English, few Scotch, and fewer Irish, and not above
two or three ships of negroes in seven years.
17.
What number of people have yearly died, within your plantation and
government for these seven years last past, both whites and blacks?
Answer.
All new plantations are, for an age or two, unhealthy, 'till they are
thoroughly cleared of wood; but unless we have a particular register
office, for the denoting of all that died, I cannot give a particular
answer to this query, only this I can say, that there is not often
unseasoned hands (as we term them) that die now, whereas heretofore not
one of five escaped the first year. |
Notice that there were more White "servants" than black slaves at that time
Slavery was not just black
Passage To America, 1750
|
| At
the end of the seventeenth century approximately 200,000 people
inhabited the British colonies in North America. The following century
saw an explosion in numbers with the population doubling about every 25
years. The majority of these new immigrants were Scotch-Irish, Germans or African slaves. Between 1700 and the beginning of the American Revolution, approximately 250,000 Africans, 210,000 Europeans and 50,000 convicts had reached the colonial shores. The
passage to America was treacherous by any standard. Many of the
immigrants were too poor to pay for the journey and therefore indentured
themselves to wealthier colonialists - selling their services for a
period of years in return for the price of the passage. Crammed into a
small wooden ship, rolling and rocking at the mercy of the sea, the
voyagers - men, women and children - endured hardships unimaginable to
us today. Misery was the most common description of a journey that
typically lasted seven weeks.
Gottleb
Mittelberger was an organ master and schoolmaster who left one of the
small German states in May 1750 to make his way to America. He arrived
at the port of Philadelphia on October 10. He represents the thousands
of Germans who settled in middle Pennsylvania during this period. He
returned to his homeland in 1754. His diary was published in this
country in 1898:
".during
the voyage there is on board these ships terrible misery, stench,
fumes, horror, vomiting, many kinds of seasickness, fever, dysentery,
headache, heat, constipation, boils, scurvy, cancer, mouth rot, and the
like, all of which come from old and sharply-salted food and meat, also
from very bad and foul water, so that many die miserably.
Add
to this want of provisions, hunger, thirst, frost, heat, dampness,
anxiety, want, afflictions and lamentations, together with other
trouble, as e.g., the lice abound so frightfully, especially on sick
people, that they can be scraped off the body. The misery reaches a
climax when a gale rages for two or three nights and days, so that every
one believes that the ship will go to the bottom with all human beings
on board. In such a visitation the people cry and pray most piteously.
 No
one can have an idea of the sufferings which women in confinement have
to bear with their innocent children on board these ships. Few of this class escape with their lives;
many a mother is cast into the water with her child as soon as she is
dead. One day, just as we had a heavy gale, a woman in our ship, who was
to give birth and could not give birth under the circumstances, was
pushed through a loophole (porthole) in the ship and dropped into the
sea, because she was far in the rear of the ship and could not be
brought forward.
Children from one to seven years rarely survive the voyage;
and many a time parents are compelled to see their children miserably
suffer and die from hunger, thirst, and sickness, and then to see them
cast into the water. I witnessed such misery in no less than thirty-two
children in our ship, all of whom were thrown into the sea. The parents
grieve all the more since their children find no resting place in the
earth, but are devoured by the monsters of the sea. It is a notable
fact that children who have not yet had the measles or smallpox
generally get them on board the ship, and mostly die of them.
When
the ships have landed at Philadelphia after their long voyage, no one
is permitted to leave them except those who pay for their passage or can
give good security; the others, who cannot pay, must remain on board
the ships till they are purchased and are released from the ships
by their purchasers. The sick always fare the worst, for the healthy
are naturally preferred and purchased first; and so the sick and
wretched must often remain on board in front of the city for two or
three weeks, and frequently die, whereas many a one, if he could pay his
debt and were permitted to leave the ship immediately, might recover
and remain alive.
The sale of
human beings in the market on board the ship is carried on thus: Every
day Englishmen, Dutchmen, and High German people come from the city of
Philadelphia and other places, in part from a great distance, say
twenty, thirty, or forty hours away, and go on board the newly-arrived
ship that has brought and offers for sale passengers from Europe,
and select among the healthy persons such as they deem suitable for
their business, and bargain with them how long they will serve for their
passage money, which most of them are still in debt for, When they have
come to an agreement, it happens that adult persons bind themselves in
writing to serve three, four, five, or six years for the amount due by
them, according to their age and strength. But very young people, from
ten to fifteen years, must serve till they are twenty-one years old.
Many parents must sell and trade away their children like so many head of cattle,
for if their children take the debt upon them- selves, the parents can
leave the ship free and unrestrained; but as the parents often do not
know where and to what people their children are going, it often happens
that such parents and children, after leaving the ship, do not see each
other again for many years, perhaps no more in all their lives.
It
often happens that whole families, husband, wife, and children, are
separated by being sold to different purchasers, especially when they
have not paid any part of their passage money.
When
a husband or wife has died at sea, when the ship has made more than
half of her trip, the survivor must pay or serve not only for himself or
herself, but also for the deceased. When both parents have died
over halfway at sea, their children, especially when they are young and
have nothing to pawn or to pay, must stand for their own and their
parents' passage, and serve till they are twenty-one years old. When one
has served his or her term, he or she is entitled to a new suit of
clothes at parting; and if it has been so stipulated, a man gets in
addition a horse, a woman, a cow."
References:
Mittelberger,
Gottleb, Gottleb Mittelberger's Journey to Pennsylvania in the Year
1750 and Return to Germany in the year 1754 (published by the German
Society of Pennsylvania 1898)
How To Cite This Article:
"Passage To America, 1750," EyeWitness to History, www.eyewitnesstohistory.com (2000). |
If this doesn't put history in perspective for you, nothing will
Slavery was not just southern -- or White owned!
Bet this one may surprise you! Yes, slavery was also in the Northern states.
From the University of Virginia Library has a historical census browser
where you can get a variety of statistics relating to the census
including slave statistics. One of these tables even lists slaves by
state, county and the number of slaves that each county had in a
particular census year (remember, the census was done every 10 years
starting in 1790.)
Guess what, Connecticut had slaves in 1790! Every county. So did Delaware. As a matter of fact, Delaware had slaves in every county, every census, until slavery was abolished.
Alabama's
first slave wasn't until the 1820 census! And then it wasn't even in
every county. Georgia, of course, had some slaves in 1790 but certainly
not every county, only a handful.
Illinois,
land of Lincoln, had slaves! Yes, several counties in Illinois owned
slaves up until the 1850 census and even a handful of counties in
Indiana were slave owners.
We're well aware that Louisiana, Mississippi and the Carolinas were big slave owning states. But did you know that Maryland, except for Howard County, (until 1860) and one or two others owned slaves! That's right.
New Hampshire had a handful of slaves. Most counties in New Jersey were slave owning, New York and Pennsylvania until 1850 HAD SLAVES!
These northern states owned slaves before the southern states.
The Northern States owned slaves starting from the 1790 census. Some
Southern States started later, the Carolinas were by 1790, so was
Virginia. Georgia and Tennessee had a handful by 1800, but others
didn't start their slave ownership until the 1820 census.
So what does this prove? That
slavery started in the industrial north. It was not a southern
invention. The southern economy may have depended on slavery but the
northern states benefited from slavery as well.
By 1860 on the eve of the War of Northern Aggression, most northern states had outlawed slavery. Yet interestingly, Maryland (87,189) Delaware (1,798) and New Jersey (18) still owned slaves. Nebraska, which was supposed to be a "free" state, had 15 and Kansas had 2. (Maryland was technically a border, slave owning state but remained part of the Union during the Civil War).
According to the 1860 Census 1.4% of Whites in the country (or 4.8% of southern Whites) owned one or more slaves. The majority owned between 1 and 5 slaves. The few individuals who owned 50 or more slaves were confined to the top one percent, and have been defined as slave magnates.
Back
to the 1860 Census, there were almost 4.5 million blacks in the
country, most of them in the south. Almost half a million of them were free. Of those, over 10,000 lived in New Orleans and over 3,000 of them owned slaves a whopping 28% of the free blacks of that city!
The 1860 Census also shows that at least six blacks in Louisiana owned more than 65 slaves,
one, C. Richards and her son P.C. Richards, owned 152 slaves on a large
sugar cane plantation. Another, Antoine Dubuclet, who was a sugar
planter, had over 100 slaves and was valued, in 1860 dollars, at
$264,000. That year the mean wealth of southern Whit men was $3,978.
In Charleston, South Carolina in 1860, 125 free blacks owned slaves, six of whom owned ten or more. In North Carolina 69 free blacks were slave owners.
Historians will say that black slave owners only owned their family or friends. The book "Black Slave Owners: Free Black Slave Masters in South Carolina, 1790-1860"
proves this to be false. The author, a black man named Larry Koger,
proves that blacks who owned slaves did so for two reasons. Some of
them purchased their family members. And because of laws were unable to
then free them and then "owned" their husbands, wives, or children for
life. But a large majority of free black slave owners purchased their slaves for profit.
These blacks were plantation owners and business owners, tailors,
cooks, dress makers, etc. They needed slaves to make their business a
success. In other words, just like the Whites of their day, the black
slave owners took advantage of the practice of slavery in order to
advance their business and make money. It was the economic system and
they took advantage of it. These black slave owners separated families,
sold unprofitable slaves and purchased their human property for
profit. Just like the White man.
Notice that three of the four advertisements specifically advertise negroes
Is the fourth advertising White slaves?
1835 Ad from the East India Company in London
|
South Carolina Gazette, Charleston, 1760
|
Richmond, Virginia, 1823
|
Charleston, 1769
|
Slave Ship Owners
How did the slaves get here? Who owned the slave ships that brought the Africans to our country? Who profited from this horrific trafficking in human cargo?
The following table is a list of Ship's names, dates that they sailed and who owned them. This is just a fraction of the ships that entered the United States. But it gives an idea of who was profiting from this. TSRBBAJ = The Secret Relationship Between Blacks and Jews.
| Name | Date | Owner | Nationality | Captain | Number of slaves | Departure | Destination | Source |
| Abigail | ? | Aaron Lopez, Moses Levy, Jacob Francks | Jewish | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.192) |
| Active | ? | Aaron Lopez | Jewish | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.192) |
| Africa | ? | Jacob Rivera, Aaron Lopez | Jewish | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.192) |
| Albany | ? | Rodrigo Pacheco | Jewish | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.192) |
| Amedee | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | QLAELONDLE t.2 (p,59) |
| Ann | 1806 | James DeWolf | Jewish | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.195) |
| Ann | ? | Aaron Lopez | Jewish | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.192) |
| Anne & Eliza | ? | Justus Bosh, John Abrams | Jewish | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.192) |
| Antigua | ? | Nathan Marston, Abram Lyell | Jewish | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.192) |
| Barbados Factor | 1743 | Joseph Marks | Jewish | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.194) |
| Belle | 1773 | Moses, David Franks | Jewish | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.194) |
| Betsey | ? | Samuel Jacobs | Jewish | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.195) |
| Betsy | ? | Jacob Rivera, Aaron Lopez | Jewish | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.192) |
| Braman | 1856 9 juin (saisie) | John Levi & Henriques da Costa | Jewish | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.195) |
| Brooks | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | QLAELONDLE t.2 (p,21-22) |
| Butterfly | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | QLAELONDLE t.2 (p,62) |
| Caracoa | ? | Moses & Sam Levy | Jewish | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.192) |
| Charlotte | ? | Moses & Sam Levy, Jacob Franks | Jewish | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.192) |
| Charlotte E. Tay | 1860 24 avril (saisie) | Fred K. Myer | Jewish | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.195) |
| Charming Betsey | 1760 | Samuel Levy | Jewish | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.194) |
| Charming Polly | 1751 | Joseph Marks | Jewish | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.194) |
| Charming Sally | 1743 | Joseph Marks | Jewish | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.194) |
| Cleopatra | ? | Jacob Rivera, Aaron Lopez | Jewish | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.192) |
| Confirmation | 1758 | Naphtali, Isaac, Abraham Hart | Jewish | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.194) |
| Crown | 1717 | Isaac Levy, Nathan Simson | Jewish | ? | 217 au total | Afrique | New York | TSRBBAJ (p.96) |
| David | 1783 | Abraham Gradis | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.195) |
| De Vrijheid | ? | David Senior, Jacob Senior | Jewish | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.192) |
| Deborah | 1771 | Samson Levy | Jewish | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.194) |
| Defiance | 1758 | Naphtali, Isaac, Abraham Hart | Jewish | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.194) |
| Delaware | 1773 | Moses, David Franks | Jewish | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.194) |
| Diamond | 1758 | Naphtali, Isaac, Abraham Hart | Jewish | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.194) |
| Dolphin | 1748 | Joseph Marks | Jewish | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.194) |
| Dolphin | 1758 | Naphtali, Isaac, Abraham Hart | Jewish | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.194) |
| Drake | 1743 | Nathan Levy & David Franks | Jewish | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.194) |
| Dreadnought | ? | Hayman Levy | Jewish | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.195) |
| Duke of Cumberland | ? | Judah Hays | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.195) |
| Duke of York | ? | Jacob Franks | Jewish | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.195) |
| Eagle | ? | Moses Seixas | Jewish | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.193) |
| Elizabeth | ? | Mordecai & David Gomez | Jewish | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.193) |
| Fortunate | ? | Aaron Lopez | Jewish | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.193) |
| Four Sisters | ? | Moses Levy | Jewish | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.193) |
| General Well | 1758 | Naphtali, Isaac, Abraham Hart | Jewish | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.194) |
| General Well | ? | Moses Levy | Jewish | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.195) |
| George | ? | Aaron Levy | Jewish | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.193) |
| Gloucester | 1772 | Moses, David Franks & Isaac Levy | Jewish | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.194) |
| Greyhound | 1722 14 décembre (saisie) | Mardecai Gomez | Jewish | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.195) |
| Greyhound | ? | Jacob Rivera, Aaron Lopez (plus tard Moses Levy) | Jewish | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.193) |
| Hannah | ? | Jacob Rivera, | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.193) |
| Hannah | 1746 | Joseph Marks | Jewish | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.194) |
| Hester | ? | Mordecai & David Gomez, Rodrigo Pacheco | Jewish | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.193) |
| Hetty | ? | Mordecai Sheftall | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.193) |
| Hiram | ? | Moses Seixas | Jewish | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.193) |
| Hope | ? | Aaron Lopez, Myer Pollack | Jewish | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.193) |
| Jane | 1806 | David G. Seixas | Jewish | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.195) |
| Joseph & Rachel | 1702 | Moses, Joseph & Samuel Frazon | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.194) |
| Josephine | 1860 28 mai (saisie) | Benjamin Isaacs | Jewish | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.195) |
| Juf Gracia | ? | Raphael Jesurun Sasportas | ? | Raphael Jesurun Sasportas | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.193) |
| Juffr. Gerebrecht | ? | Philippe Henriquez, David Senior & Co. | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.193) |
| King George | ? | Naphthali Hart | Jewish | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.195) |
| L Affriquaine | 8 mars 1713 | Compagnie du Sénégal | Française | Claude Gontard | 500 dont 140 morts | Nantes | Cap | LSELEDN |
| L Amazone | 23 octobre 1709 | ,,,,,, | Française | Julien Glemeau | 500 | Nantes | Martinique | LSELEDN |
| L Aurore | 6 janvier 1713 | Mathurin Joubert et consorts | Française | Jacques Nadreau | 266 | Nantes | martinique Buenos-Ayres | LSELEDN |
| L Eclair | 23 octobre 1709 | Mathurin Joubert et consorts | Française | Joseph Joubert Demarais | confondue avec ceux du "le brillant" | Nantes | Martinique | LSELEDN |
| L Eclair | 29 Septembre 1712 | Mathurin Joubert et consorts | Française | Jean Terrien | ,,,,,,,,,,, | Nantes | Petit Goave | LSELEDN |
| L Emmanuel Fortune | 11 novembre 1713 | Compagnie de L'assiente | Française | Maurice de Cananville | 224 | Nantes | Guadeloupe, | LSELEDN |
| L Esperance | 6 decembre 1713 | J, Danssainct | Française | J, Cavers | 183 dont 86 morts | Nantes | Martinique | LSELEDN |
| L Esperance | 15 janvier 1714 | Mathurin Joubert | Française | Kermark de Kerlinir | 270 dont 40 morts | Nantes | Cayenne | LSELEDN |
| L Hercule | 20 juin 1709 | Montaudoin et consorts | Française | Samuel Morisse | 485 dont 82 morts | Nantes | Martinique | LSELEDN |
| La Belle Pauline | 1783 | WEISS Et fils | suisse | ? | 568 | La Rochelle | ? | LSELEDN (p.50-51) |
| La Concorde | 13 avril 1713 | Montaudoin et consorts | Française | Isaac Thomas | 418 dont 55 morts | Nantes | Martinique | LSELEDN |
| La Fauvette | 1791 | Baux Balguerie & Cie | suisse | ? | ? | Bordeaux | ? | LSELEDN (p.50-51) |
| La Fidelite | 28 aout 1713 | Jean Montaudois et consorts | Française | Julien Glemeau | 440 dont 30 morts | Nantes | Martinique | LSELEDN |
| La Gaillarde | 26 avril 1710 | Sébastien Perises | Française | Jean Terrien | 395 | Nantes | La Havane | LSELEDN |
| La Gaillarde | 25 juillet 1713 | Périssel et consorts | Française | Michel Denis | 433 dont 33 morts | Nantes | Martinique Cap | LSELEDN |
| La Genereuse | 13 avril 1713 | Montaudoin et consorts | Française | Guillaume Thomas | 95 dont 14 morts | Nantes | Cayenne | LSELEDN |
| La Genevieve | 20 novembre 1714 | Pierre Bernier | Française | Pierre Allesne | 242 dont 40 morts | Nantes | Martinique | LSELEDN |
| La Georgette | 1788 | RIEDY & THURNINGER | suisse | ? | 33 | Nantes | ? | LSELEDN (p.50-51) |
| La Georgette | 1789 | RIEDY & THURNINGER | suisse | ? | 278 | Nantes | ? | LSELEDN (p.50-51) |
| La Georgette | 1790 | RIEDY & THURNINGER | suisse | ? | 269 | Nantes | ? | LSELEDN (p.50-51) |
| La Georgette | 1791 | RIEDY & THURNINGER | suisse | ? | 306 | Nantes | ? | LSELEDN (p.50-51) |
| La Gracieuse | 4 juin 1713 | Robin et consorts | Française | P, Burgevin | 287 dont 87 morts | Nantes | Cayenne Martinique | LSELEDN |
| La Marie | 15 juillet 1714 | Sarrebourse de Hauteville et consorts | Française | Jean Terrien | 200 dont 25 ou 35 morts | Nantes | Martinique | LSELEDN |
| La Marie Magdelaine | 10 juin 1714 | Sarrebourse de Hauteville et consorts | Française | F, Avril | 350 dont 91 morts | Nantes | Martinique et Cap | LSELEDN |
| La Marie-Thérese | 1783 | VAN BERBERSHEM | suisse | ? | ? | Nantes | ? | LSELEDN (p.50-51) |
| La Nymphe | 28 aout 1713 | Robin et consorts | Française | Pierre Grillaud | 225 | Nantes | Cap | LSELEDN |
| La Paix | 24 juin 1714 | Delaunay Montaudoin | Française | Pierre Jaheu | 240 dont 18 morts | Nantes | Martinique | LSELEDN |
| La Reine | 16 decembre 1713 | Louis Danssainct | Française | Jean Danssainct | 450 ou 480 dont 167 morts | Nantes | Rio de Janeiro, Bahia | LSELEDN |
| La Sainte-Agnes | 22 janvier 1714 | Luc Schiell | Française | Desmarais Joubert | 504 dont 289 morts | Nantes | Martinique | LSELEDN |
| La Vigilante | 1774 | J, Montet, Henry & Cie | suisse | ? | ? | Bordeaux | ? | LSELEDN (p.50-51) |
| La Ville De Basle | 1786 | WEISS Et fils | suisse | ? | 236 | La Rochelle | ? | LSELEDN (p.50-51) |
| La Ville De Lausanne | 1790 | D'Illens, Van Berchem | suisse | ? | 550 | Marseille | ? | LSELEDN (p.50-51) |
| L'Adelle | 1787 | Rivier et Cie | suisse | ? | 272 | Le Havre | ? | LSELEDN (p.50-51) |
| L'Adelle | 1789 | Rivier et Cie | suisse | ? | 325 | Le Havre | ? | LSELEDN (p.50-51) |
| L'Affriquain | 1783 | RIEDY & THURNINGER | suisse | ? | 485 | Nantes | ? | LSELEDN (p.50-51) |
| L'Affriquain | 28 Septembre 1712 | Montaudoin et consorts | Française | Jean Le Roux | ,,,,,,,,,,, | Nantes | ,,,,, | LSELEDN |
| L'Affriquain | 26 septembre 1714 | René Montaudoin | Française | René Budan | 467 dont 105 morts | Nantes | Cap | LSELEDN |
| L'aimable Flore | 1788 | J,R, Wirz & Cie | suisse | ? | 59 | Bordeaux | ? | LSELEDN (p.50-51) |
| L'aimable Julie | 1786 | J,R, Wirz & Cie | suisse | ? | 62 | Bordeaux | ? | LSELEDN (p.50-51) |
| L'Alliance | 1783 | Abraham Gradis | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.195) |
| L'Anaz | 1791 | D'Illens, Van Berchem | suisse | ? | ? | Marseille | ? | LSELEDN (p.50-51) |
| Lark * | 1774 | Aaron Lopez | Jewish | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.194) |
| Le Blason | 17 mars 1714 | Jean Simon pour la Compagnie de l'assiento | Française | Gaspard Le Blanc | 386 dont 114 morts | Nantes | Martinique | LSELEDN |
| Le Brillant | 23 octobre 1709 | | Française | Antoine de Cazalis | 590 dont 62 morts | Nantes | Martinique | LSELEDN |
| Le Cerf | 1789 | Baux Balguerie & Cie | suisse | ? | ? | Bordeaux | ? | LSELEDN (p.50-51) |
| Le Cerf | 1790 | Baux Balguerie & Cie | suisse | ? | ? | Bordeaux | ? | LSELEDN (p.50-51) |
| Le Cesar | 6 janvier 1709 | ,,,, | Française | Jean de Cazalis | 210 dont 30 morts | Nantes | Grenade et Saint-Domingue | LSELEDN |
| Le Chasseur | 1789 | Baux Balguerie & Cie | suisse | ? | 300 | Bordeaux | ? | LSELEDN (p.50-51) |
| Le Comte De Lamoignon | 10 mars 1712 | | Française | Gabriel Legac | 465 | Nantes | Carthagène, Portobello, La Havane | LSELEDN |
| Le Conquerant | 1788 | Rivier et Cie | suisse | ? | 420 | Le Havre | ? | LSELEDN (p.50-51) |
| Le Conquerant | 1791 | Rivier et Cie | suisse | ? | 400 | Le Havre | ? | LSELEDN (p.50-51) |
| Le Cultivateur | 1815 | ROSSEL et BOUDET | suisse | ? | 519 | Nantes | ? | LSELEDN (p.50-51) |
| Le Dauphin | 1822 | ROSSEL et BOUDET | suisse | ? | ? | Nantes | ? | LSELEDN (p.50-51) |
| Le Dauphin | 18 octobre 1710 | ,,,, | Française | Louis Lepage | 64 dont 4 morts | Nantes | Cayenne La Havane | LSELEDN |
| Le Duc De Bretagne | 27 novembre 1708 | Compagnie Royale de Guinée | Française | Jean Le Roux | 592 | Nantes | Grenade et Saint-Domingue | LSELEDN |
| Le Duc De Bretagne | 7 novembre 1710 | ,,,,, | Française | Samuel Morisse | ,,,,, | Nantes | Saint-Domingue | LSELEDN |
| Le Duc De Bretagne | 4 septembre 1714 | Dumotay Bossinot | Française | Jacques Prado | 470 dont 72 morts | Nantes | Cap | LSELEDN |
| Le Duc De Normandie | 1786 | J,R, Wirz & Cie | suisse | ? | 203 | Bordeaux | ? | LSELEDN (p.50-51) |
| Le Duc de normandie | 1790 | J,R, Wirz & Cie | suisse | ? | 279 | Bordeaux | ? | LSELEDN (p.50-51) |
| Le Fleurissant | 23 avril 1714 | Michel Le Ray et consorts | Française | Julien Marchais | 118 dont 50 morts | Nantes | Cayenne | LSELEDN |
| Le Francois(Vaisseau Du Roi) | 1712 | Compagnie de L'assiente | Française | Bigot | 470 ou 570 | Nantes | Martinique | LSELEDN |
| Le georges | 1787 | RIEDY & THURNINGER | suisse | ? | 553 | Nantes | ? | LSELEDN (p.50-51) |
| Le Georges | 1789 | RIEDY & THURNINGER | suisse | ? | 440 | Nantes | ? | LSELEDN (p.50-51) |
| Le Georges | 1790 | RIEDY & THURNINGER | suisse | ? | 382 | Nantes | ? | LSELEDN (p.50-51) |
| Le Grand Duc De Bretagne | 25 janvier 1714 | Bertrand et consorts | Française | Achille Lavigne | 375 entre 25 et 50 morts | Nantes | Martinique | LSELEDN |
| Le Jason | 26 mai 1710 | ,,,,, | Française | André Bremont | 291 dont 6 morts | Nantes | Grenade, La Havane, Martinique | LSELEDN |
| Le Jason | 19 decembre 1712 | Martin Thiercelin et consorts | Française | Louis Lebourg | 250 dont 46 morts | Nantes | Jamaique Carthagène | LSELEDN |
| Le Jeune Auguste | 1790 | RIEDY & THURNINGER | suisse | ? | 180 | Nantes | ? | LSELEDN (p.50-51) |
| Le Leopard | 23 octobre 1709 | | Française | Guillaume Bouet | 366 dont 116 morts | Nantes | Martinique | LSELEDN |
| Le Lévrier | 1789 | Baux Balguerie & Cie | suisse | ? | ? | Bordeaux | ? | LSELEDN (p.50-51) |
| Le Luzancay | 19 septembre 1712 | Delaunay Montaudoin | Française | Samuel morisse | 300 | Nantes | Martinique | LSELEDN |
| Le Luzancay | 27 septembre 1714 | Delaunay Montaudoin | Française | Jean Le Couteux | 345 dont 48 morts | Nantes | Martinique, Cap | LSELEDN |
| Le Mercure | 12 juin 1713 | De Beaulieu Beloteau | Française | Guillaume Pichaud | 413 dont 42 morts | Nantes | Guadeloupe, Cap, Léogane | LSELEDN |
| Le Nélée | 1789 | Baux Balguerie & Cie | suisse | ? | 339 | Bordeaux | ? | LSELEDN (p.50-51) |
| Le Nélée | 1792 | Baux Balguerie & Cie | suisse | ? | ? | Bordeaux | ? | LSELEDN (p.50-51) |
| Le Nestor | 1790 | J,Monet,Henry&Bellamy | suisse | ? | 150 | Bordeaux | ? | LSELEDN (p.50-51) |
| Le Nouvel Achille | 1783 | WEISS Et fils | suisse | ? | 355 | La Rochelle | ? | LSELEDN (p.50-51) |
| Le Parfait | 1783 | Abraham Gradis | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.195) |
| Le Passepartout | 1790 | RIEDY & THURNINGER | suisse | ? | (naufrage) | Nantes | ? | LSELEDN (p.50-51) |
| Le Pays De Vaud | 1790 | D'Illens, Van Berchem | suisse | ? | 485 | Marseille | ? | LSELEDN (p.50-51) |
| Le Petit Blason | 17 mars 1714 | Jean Simon | Française | Jean Viau | 48 dont 4 morts | Nantes | Martinique | LSELEDN |
| Le Petit Georges | 1791 | RIEDY & THURNINGER | suisse | ? | ? | Nantes | ? | LSELEDN (p.50-51) |
| Le Phaeton | 7 septembre 1714 | De Cazalis Pradine | Française | Jean Ingrand | 220 dont 20 morts | Nantes | Martinique | LSELEDN |
| Le Pontchartrain | 27 septembre 1714 | Compagnie du Sénégal | Française | Joseph Lemagnen | 341 dont 19 morts | Nantes | Cap | LSELEDN |
| Le Réciproque | 1792 | Baux Balguerie & Cie | suisse | ? | ? | Bordeaux | ? | LSELEDN (p.50-51) |
| Le Reparateur | 1786 | WEISS Et fils | suisse | ? | 410 | La Rochelle | ? | LSELEDN (p.50-51) |
| Le Reparateur | 1787 | WEISS Et fils | suisse | ? | 469 | La Rochelle | ? | LSELEDN (p.50-51) |
| Le Reparateur | 1790 | WEISS Et fils | suisse | ? | 362 | La Rochelle | ? | LSELEDN (p.50-51) |
| Le Saint-Clement | 1784 | THURNINGER | suisse | ? | 150 | Rochefort | ? | LSELEDN (p.50-51) |
| Le Saint-Joseph | 14 mai 1709 | Laurencin et consorts, | Française | Simon Catho | 300 dont 11 morts | Nantes | Cayenne | LSELEDN |
| Le Scipion | 16 decembre 1713 | Pradine et consorts | Française | Alain Duguay | 110 dont 43 morts | Nantes | Martinique | LSELEDN |
| Le Superbe | 24 octobre 1710 | ,,,,,,,,, | Française | jacques Monfort | 240 dont 10 morts | Nantes | Martinique | LSELEDN |
| Le Vainqueur | 1783 | Abraham Gradis | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.195) |
| Le Vainqueur | 21 octobre 1714 | Charles Trochon | Française | Raymond Billet | le bateau echoue en afrique | Nantes | ,,,,,,,,,,, | LSELEDN |
| Le Vigilant | 1774 | J, Montet, Henry & Cie | suisse | ? | 351 | Bordeaux | ? | LSELEDN (p.50-51) |
| Le Zephir | 1 juin 1713 | Le Coq et Sigougne et consorts | Française | Charles Fontaine | 260 dont 118 morts | Nantes | Cap | LSELEDN |
| Leghorn | ? | Rodrigo Pacheco | Jewish | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.193) |
| L'Elise | 1783 | WEISS Et fils | suisse | ? | 120 | La Rochelle | ? | LSELEDN (p.50-51) |
| L'Elise | 1822 | ROSSEL et BOUDET | suisse | ? | ? | Nantes | ? | LSELEDN (p.50-51) |
| Les 13 cantons | 1783 | WEISS Et fils | suisse | ? | 499 | La Rochelle | ? | LSELEDN (p.50-51) |
| Les 13 Cantons | 1786 | WEISS Et fils | suisse | ? | 283 | La Rochelle | ? | LSELEDN (p.50-51) |
| L'Espiegle | 1790 | RIEDY & THURNINGER | suisse | ? | 28 | Nantes | ? | LSELEDN (p.50-51) |
| L'Helvtie | 1791 | D'Illens, Van Berchem | suisse | ? | ? | Marseille | ? | LSELEDN (p.50-51) |
| L'Iris | 1783 | WEISS Et fils | suisse | ? | ? | La Rochelle | ? | LSELEDN (p.50-51) |
| Lord Howe | 1758 | Naphtali, Isaac, Abraham Hart | Jewish | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.194) |
| L'Union | 1787 | J,Monet,Henry&Bellamy | suisse | ? | 250 | Bordeaux | ? | LSELEDN (p.50-51) |
| L'Union | 1789 | J,Monet,Henry&Bellamy | suisse | ? | 113 | Bordeaux | ? | LSELEDN (p.50-51) (p.50-51) |
| Mars | 1773 | Moses, David Franks | Jewish | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.194) |
| Mary | ? | Jacob Rivera, Aaron Lopez | Jewish | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.193) |
| Mary & Abigail | 1713 | Abraham de Lucena & Justus Bosch | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.194) |
| Mary and Ann | ? | Moses Levy | Jewish | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.195) |
| Mendon | 1087 (saisie) | ? | ? | Johnathan Fitch | ? | Congo | Amérique | QLAELONDLE t.2 (p,64) |
| Myrtilla | 1745 | Nathan Levy & David Franks | Jewish | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.194) |
| Nancy | 1806 | David G. Seixas & Benjamin S. Spitzer | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.195) |
| Nancy | ? | Myer Pollack | Jewish | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.193) |
| Nassau | ? | Moses Levy | Jewish | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.193) |
| New York | 1771 | Aaron Lopez | Jewish | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.194) |
| Nina | ? | Luis de Santagel, Juan Cabrero | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.193) |
| Orion | 1859 21 juin (saisie) | Rudolph Blumenberg | Jewish | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.195) |
| Orleans | ? | Hayman Levy | Jewish | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.195) |
| Parthenope | 1745 | Nathan Levy & David Franks | Jewish | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.194) |
| Patriarch Abraham | 1783 | Abraham Gradis | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.195) |
| Pearl | ? | Emanuel Alvares Correa & Moses Cardozo & Abraham Hart | Jewish | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.195) |
| Peggy * | 1760 | Naphtali Hart | Jewish | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.194) |
| Perfect | 1758 | Naphtali, Isaac, Abraham Hart | Jewish | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.194) |
| Phila | 1745 | Nathan Levy & David Franks | Jewish | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.194) |
| Pinta | ? | Luis de Santagel, Juan Cabrero | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.193) |
| Polly | 1783 | Abraham Gradis | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.195) |
| Polly | 1747 | Joseph Marks | Jewish | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.194) |
| Postillion | 1721 | Nathan Simson | ? | ? | 217 au total | Afrique | New York | TSRBBAJ (p.96) |
| Prince George | ? | Isaac Elizer, Samuel Moses | Jewish | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.193) |
| Prince Orange | 1749 | Joseph Marks | Jewish | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.194) |
| Prudent Betty | ? | Jacob Phoenix, Henry Cruger | Jewish | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.193) |
| Rabbit | 1758 | Naphtali, Isaac, Abraham Hart | Jewish | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.194) |
| Rachel Marks | 1737 | Lydia (54) | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.194) |
| Rebecca | 1806 | Joseph Bueno | Jewish | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.195) |
| Rebecca | ? | Moses Lopez | Jewish | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.195) |
| Rising Sun | 1758 | Naphtali, Isaac, Abraham Hart | Jewish | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.194) |
| Royal Charlotte | ? | Aaron Lopez | Jewish | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.193) |
| Sally | ? | Saul Brown & Bros | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.193) |
| Santa Maria | ? | Luis de Santagel, Juan Cabrero | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.193) |
| Sea Flower | 1745 | Nathan Levy & David Franks | Jewish | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.194) |
| Sherbo | ? | Jacob Rivera | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.193) |
| Shiprah | ? | Naphtali Hart | Jewish | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.193) |
| Spry | ? | Jacob Rivera, Aaron Lopez | Jewish | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.193) |
| Three Friends | ? | Jacob Rivera & Co. | Jewish | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.193) |
| Two Sisters | 1760 | John Franks | Jewish | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.194) |
| Union | ? | Moses Seixas | Jewish | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.193) |
| Young Adrian | 1720 | Mordecai Gomez & Rodrigo Pacheco | Jewish | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.194) |
| Young Catherine | 1720 | Mordecai Gomez & Rodrigo Pacheco | Jewish | ? | ? | ? | ? | TSRBBAJ (p.194) |
| Zong | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | QLAELONDLE t.2 (p,15) |
| ? | 1655 | Benjamin D'Acosta | ? | ? | 1100 | Bresil | Martinique | TSRBBAJ (p.78) |
Other ships: White Hourse owned by Jan de Sweetvts, Jew, Expedition, owned by John and Jacob Roosevelt, Jews,
Where in Africa did the slaves come from?
Where did they go?
Europeans
suffered from tropical diseases that the Africans were immune to.
Africans were excellent workers and were used to a tropical climate.
They had been traded as slaves for centuries, including among each
other. The Muslims enslaved the Africans also.
Between 1450 and the end of the 1800s, slaves were obtained from along the west coast of Africa with the full and active co-operation of African kings and merchants.
These African kings and merchants received various trade goods
including beads, cowrie shells (used as currency), textiles, alcohol,
horses, and guns. Ironically, these same guns were then used against the Europeans who colonized Africa in later years.
|
Trans-Atlantic exports by region
1650-1900 |
| Region | Number of slaves
accounted for | | % |
|
| Senegambia | 479,900 | | 4.7 |
| Upper Guinea | 411,200 | | 4.0 |
| Windward Coast | 183,200 | | 1.8 |
| Gold Coast | 1,035,600 | | 10.1 |
| Blight of Benin | 2,016,200 |
| 19.7 |
| Blight of Biafra | 1,463,700 |
| 14.3 |
| West Central | 4,179,500 | | 40.8 |
| South East | 470,900 | | 4.6 |
|
| Total | 10,240,200 | | 100.0 |
|
Data derived from tables 1.1, 3.2, 3.4, 4.1 and 7.4
as presented in:
Transformations in Slavery
by Paul E. Lovejoy
Cambridge University Press, 2000,
ISBN 0-521-78430-1 |
|
|
|
Trans-Atlantic imports by region
1450-1900 |
| Region | Number of slaves
accounted for | | % |
|
| Brazil | 4,000,000 | | 35.4 |
| Spanish Empire | 2,500,000 | | 22.1 |
| British West Indies | 2,000,000 | | 17.7 |
| French West Indies | 1,600,00 | | 14.1 |
| British North America and United States | 500,000 |
| 4.4 |
| Dutch West Indies | 500,000 | | 4.4 |
| Danish West Indies | 28,000 | | 0.2 |
| Europe (and Islands) | 200,000 | | 1.8 |
|
| Total | 11,328,000 | | 100.0 |
|
Data derived from table II as presented in:
The Slave Trade
by Hugh Thomas
Simon and Schuster, 1997,
ISBN 0-68481063-8 |
|
|
|
The
trade, including slave, between Africa, Europe and the Americas is
called the Triangular Trade. The export of trade goods from Europe to
Africa forms the first side of the triangular trade.
The transport of slaves from Africa to the Americas forms the middle passage
of the triangular trade. The African slaves were introduced to new
diseases and suffered from malnutrition long before they reached
America. It's been suggested that the majority of deaths on the voyage
across the Atlantic happened during the first couple of weeks due to
malnutrition and disease encountered during the forced marches in Africa
and the slave camps on the coast of Africa awaiting loading onto slave
ships. In other words, thanks to the African kings, the slave were in
terrible shape before they ever got on the slave ships.
It
didn't help that conditions on the slave ships were terrible, yet the
estimated death rate of around 13% is still lower than the mortality
rate for seamen, officers and passengers on the same voyages.
Because of the slave trade, five times as many Africans arrived in the Americas than Europeans. They were used on plantations and mines. But, most went to Brazil, the Caribbean, and the Spanish Empire. Less than 5% went to the North American States.
The
third, and final, leg of the triangular trade involved the return to
Europe with the produce from the slave-labour plantations: cotton,
sugar, tobacco, molasses and rum.
For
more information see "Transformations in Slavery" by Paul E. Lovejoy,
Cambridge University Press, 2000, and "The Slave Trade" by Hugh Thomas,
Simon and Schuster, 1997
How did the African slaves get captures?
This first-hand account is very interesting in its detail.
Slave Trade:
the African Connection, ca 1788
|
| The
labor-intensive agriculture of the New World demanded a large
workforce. Crops such as sugar cane, tobacco and cotton required an
unlimited and inexpensive supply of strong backs to assure timely
production for the European market. Slaves from Africa offered the
solution. The slave trade between Western Africa and the America's
reached its peak in the mid-18th century when it is estimated that over 80,000 Africans annually
crossed the Atlantic to spend the rest of their lives in chains. Of
those who survived the voyage, the final destination of approximately
40% was the Caribbean Islands. Thirty-eight percent ended up in Brazil,
17% in Spanish America and 6% in the United States.
It was a lucrative business. A
slave purchased on the African coast for the equivalent of 14 English
pounds in bartered goods in 1760 could sell for 45 pounds in the
American market.
A slave's journey to a life of servitude often began in the interior
of Africa with his or her capture as a prize of war, as tribute given
by a weak tribal state to a more powerful one, or by outright kidnapping
by local traders. European slave traders rarely ventured beyond Africa's coastal regions. The African interior was riddled with disease, the natives were often hostile and the land uncharted. The Europeans preferred to stay in the coastal region and have the natives bring the slaves to them.
Dr.
Alexander Falconbridge served as the surgeon aboard a number of slave
ships that plied their trade between the West African coast and the
Caribbean in the late 1700s. He described his experiences in a popular
book published in 1788. He became active in the Anti-Slavery Society and
was appointed Governor of a colony established for freed slaves on the
coast of modern-day Sierra Leone. His service was brief as he died in
1788 shortly after his appointment. We join his story as he describes
the process through which the native African looses his freedom:
"There
is great reason to believe, that most of the Negroes shipped off from
the coast of Africa, are kidnapped. But the extreme care taken by the black traders to prevent the Europeans from gaining any intelligence of their modes of proceeding;
the great distance inland from whence the Negroes are brought; and our
ignorance of their language (with which, very frequently, the black
traders themselves are equally unacquainted), prevent our obtaining such
information on this head as we could wish. I have, however, by means of
occasional inquiries, made through interpreters, procured some
intelligence relative to the point. . . . From these I shall select the
following striking instances: While I was in employ on board one of the
slave ships, a Negro informed me that being one evening invited to drink
with some of the black traders, upon his going away, they attempted to
seize him. As he was very active, he evaded their design, and got out of
their hands. He was, however, prevented from effecting his escape by a large dog,
which laid hold of him, and compelled him to submit. These creatures
are kept by many of the traders for that purpose; and being trained to
the inhuman sport, they appear to be much pleased with it.
I
was likewise told by a Negro woman that as she was on her return home,
one evening, from some neighbors, to whom she had been making a visit by
invitation, she was kidnapped; and, notwithstanding she was big with
child, sold for a slave. This transaction happened a considerable way up
the country, and she had passed through the hands of several purchasers
before she reached the ship.
A man and his son, according to their own information, were seized by professed kidnappers,
while they were planting yams, and sold for slaves. This likewise
happened in the interior parts of the country, and after passing
through several hands, they were purchased for the ship to which I
belonged. It frequently happens that those who kidnap others are themselves, in their turns, seized and sold.
. . . During my stay on the coast of Africa, I was an eye-witness of the following transaction: a black trader
invited a Negro, who resided a little way up the country, to come and
see him. After the entertainment was over, the trader proposed to his
guest, to treat him with a sight of one of the ships lying in the river.
The unsuspicious countryman readily consented, and accompanied the
trader in a canoe to the side of the ship, which he viewed with pleasure
and astonishment. While he was thus employed, some black traders on
board, who appeared to be in the secret, leaped into the canoe, seized
the unfortunate man, and dragging him into the ship, immediately sold
him.
The preparations made at Bonny by the black traders,
upon setting out for the fairs which are held up the country, are very
considerable. From twenty to thirty canoes, capable of containing
thirty or forty Negroes each, are assembled for this purpose; and such
goods put on board them as they expect will be wanted for the purchase
of the number of slaves they intend to buy.
When
their loading is completed, they commence their voyage, with colors
flying, and music playing; and in about ten or eleven days, they
generally return to Bonny with full cargoes. As soon as the
canoes arrive at the trader's landing place, the purchased Negroes are
cleaned, and oiled with palm-oil; and on the following day they are
exposed for sale to the captains.
When the Negroes, whom the black traders
have to dispose of, are shown to the European purchasers, they first
examine them relative to their age. They then minutely inspect their
persons, and inquire into the state of their health, if they are
afflicted with any infirmity, or are deformed, or have bad eyes or
teeth; if they are lame, or weak in their joints, or distorted in the
back, or of a slender make, or are narrow in the chest; in short, if
they have been, or are afflicted in any manner, so as to render them
incapable of much labor; if any of the foregoing defects are discovered
in them, they are rejected. But if approved of, they are generally taken
on board the ship the same evening. The purchaser has liberty to return
on the following morning, but not afterwards, such as upon
re-examination are found exceptionable.
The traders frequently beat those Negroes which are objected to by the captains, and use them with great severity.
It matters not whether they are refused on account of age, illness,
deformity, or for any other reason. At New Calabar, in particular . . . the traders, when any of their Negroes have been objected to, have dropped their canoes under the stern of the vessel, and instantly be headed them, in sight of the captain.
As soon as the wretched Africans, purchased at the fairs, fall into the hands of the black traders,
they experience an earnest of those dreadful sufferings which they are
doomed in future to undergo. . . . They are brought from the places
where they are purchased to Bonny, etc. in canoes; at the bottom of
which they lie, having their hands tied with a kind of willow twigs,
and a strict watch is kept over them. Their usage in other respects,
during the time of the passage, which generally lasts several days, is
equally cruel. Their allowance of food is so scanty, that it is barely
sufficient to support nature. They are, besides, much exposed to the
violent rains which frequently fall here, being covered only with mats
that afford but a slight defense; and as there is usually water at the
bottom of the canoes, from their leaking, they are scarcely ever dry."
References:
This
eyewitness account appears in Falconbridge, Alexander, An Account of
the Slave Trade on the Coast of Africa (1788); Curtin, Phillip D.
Atlantic Slave Trade (1969); Matheson, William Law, Great Britain and
the Slave Trade, 1839-1865 (1967).
How To Cite This Article:
"Slave Trade: the African Connection, ca 1788" EyeWitness to History, www.eyewitnesstohistory.com (2007). |
The Black traders have mistreated the captured African long before
the poor slave ever entered the hands of the ship's captain. They had
been starved, beaten, and abused. And in some cases, murdered. It's no
wonder that so many of them died on the way to their final destination,
most of them in the first two weeks. Statistics prove that more European immigrants and ship's crews
died on the Atlantic voyage than did African slaves. Yes, slavery was
reprehensible, but let's be honest about the history of slavery.
So you see, slavery was much more complicated than you've been told.
Finally,
no discussion on slavery is complete without talking about
"reparations," widely discussed in 2002 but not much in recent years.
Should we, or shouldn't we, pay for the mis-deeds of those who came
before us?
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